Mecanismos de modulación central del dolor: revisión de la literatura / Mechanisms of central pain modulation: literature review

RESUMEN: La percepción del dolor resulta de múltiples y dinámicos mecanismos en el sistema nervioso central (SNC) y periférico que inhiben o facilitan el estímulo y respuesta nociceptiva. Sin embargo, la principal capacidad de modulación esta a cargo del SNC. Los estímulos nociceptivos son detectados por terminaciones nerviosas libres de neuronas periféricas que sinaptan con neuronas aferentes secundarias de la médula espinal. Luego estas fibras decusan para formar las vías nociceptivas ascendentes. Una vez alcanzadas las estructuras subcorticales, se activan las neuronas del tálamo, quienes envían el estímulo hacia la corteza somatosensorial, desencadenando la percepción consciente del dolor y activando el sistema inhibitorio descendente. Para que la modulación nociceptiva se realice, es necesaria la participación de diversas sustancias o neurotransmisores que conectan áreas del SNC especializadas. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de este estudio fue realizar una revisión de la literatura respecto de los mecanismos que participan en los procesos de modulación central del dolor.

SUMMARY: Pain perception results from multiple and dynamic mechanisms in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system that inhibit or facilitate stimulation and nociceptive response. However, neuromodulation is mainly a function of the CNS. Nociceptive stimulus is detected by peripheral neurons receptors that synapse with the secondary afferent neurons of the spinal cord. These fibers cross to conform the ascending nociceptive pathways. Once the subcortical structures are reached, the thalamus`s neurons are activated; the thalamus send the stimulus to the somatosensory cortex, triggering the conscious perception of pain and activating the descending inhibitory system. For the nociceptive modulation to be carried out, the participation of various substances or neurotransmitters that connect specialized CNS areas is necessary. Therefore, the aim of this study was to review the literature regarding the mechanisms involved in central pain modulation processes.

Dolor y analgésicos. Algunas consideraciones oportunas / Pain and painkillers. Some timely considerations

RESUMEN El dolor ha acompañado a la humanidad desde épocas remotas hasta la actualidad; síntoma muy frecuente observado en todos los niveles de salud, y en que la medicina presenta éxitos y fracasos, por lo que preocupa y ocupa en forma permanente a los investigadores. Su atención desde el punto de vista asistencial se hace complejo por la variedad de factores que lo condicionan. El enfoque terapéutico de ese síntoma debe apoyarse en el conocimiento de la fisiopatología y el empleo de medios que permitan hacer una valoración de su origen y evolución para adecuar las estrategias analgésicas que correspondan. En este trabajo se realiza una revisión sobre los aspectos antes mencionados en relación con el dolor.

ABSTRACT Pain has accompanied humanity from remote times to the present day; this is a very well- frequent symptom in health levels, where medicine presents successes and failures. For this reason it is a permanent researchers´ concern and occupation. Assisting pain is complex due to the variety of factors which conditions it. Therapeutic approach to this symptom must be based on pathophysiology knowledge and the use of means that allow assessing its origin and progress to adapt the corresponding analgesic strategies. In this work, a review is made on the aforementioned aspects in relation to pain.

Effects of group kinesiotherapy on primary and secondary symptoms of osteoarthrosis

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of a specific, kinesiotherapy-based rehabilitation program on the various symptoms of osteoarthrosis (OA), following group treatment. Thirty-one individuals, of both sexes, aged over 50 years and with medical diagnosis of OA, underwent 16 sessions, twice a week, totaling eight weeks, of a specific rehabilitation protocol based on group kinesiotherapy. Primary OA symptoms were assessed (directly related to the disease: OA symptoms, trunk flexibility, balance and pain), and so were secondary ones (indirectly related to the disease: signs of depression and anxiety, and quality of life). Data were tested through Student's t test or Wilcoxon's test, and contingencies of categorical data were analyzed using McNemar's test. There was an improvement in all primary symptoms of OA after the kinesiotherapy protocol was applied. Signs of anxiety and depression improved only in contingency, when risk stratification was taken into account. In addition, physical components of quality of life also showed improvement, which did not occur with mental components though. Therefore, the kinesiotherapy-based rehabilitation program was capable of positively influencing all primary symptoms, and only some aspects of secondary OA symptoms.

Dor em recém-nascidos hospitalizados em unidade de terapia intensiva: aspectos fisiológicos, comportamentais e endócrinos / Pain in newborns hospitalized in an intensive care unit: physiological, behavioral and endocrine aspects

Introdução: recém-nascidos (RN), que passam semanas ou meses na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva Neonatal (UTIN), são submetidos a um número elevado de procedimentos dolorosos. Estes procedimentos podem desencadear uma resposta global, que inclui alterações fisiológicas, endócrinas e comportamentais. Apesar do grande número de escalas validadas nas últimas décadas, até o momento, não existe um método ideal para a avaliação da dor neonatal. Desta forma, outros parâmetros têm sido explorados, como por exemplo, as dosagens de mediadores inflamatórios. Objetivos: avaliar padrões fisiológicos, comportamentais e endócrinos, relacionados a procedimentos dolorosos, nos primeiros três dias de vida em RN, hospitalizados em UTIN. Método: estudo clínico primário, observacional e prospectivo, desenvolvido na UTIN do Hospital Universitário, da Universidade de São Paulo. Foram coletados dados demográficos dos RN, bem como do número e o tipo de procedimentos dolorosos, medidas farmacológicas e não farmacológicas adotadas. Foram coletados ainda sinais vitais e escores de dor registrados em prontuário clínico. Finalmente, foram coletadas três amostras de saliva, por três dias consecutivos (1-3) para a dosagem de 11 citocinas (IFNg, IL1b, IL2, IL4, IL6, IL8, IL10, IL12, IL17, TNF e VEGF). Resultados: foram incluídos no estudo 90 RN, dos quais 53,33% nasceram de parto cesárea; 62,22% do sexo masculino; 87,78% classificados como adequado para a idade gestacional (AIG); 48,88% são pré-termo e 48,88% de termo; idade gestacional média de 35 semanas; Escore de Apgar médio no 5°min 7,51 (DP=1,95); peso ao nascimento médio 2,56Kg (DP=1,0); o principal diagnóstico registrado foi desconforto respiratório precoce (60%). Tempo médio de permanência na UTIN foi de 54,98 horas (DP=30,61). Os RN foram submetidos ao total de 2.732 procedimentos dolorosos, foram empregadas 540 estratégias não farmacológicas e 216 medidas farmacológicas. Da admissão ao terceiro dia de internação, foram realizados, em média, 30,36 procedimentos dolorosos por RN, com média de 5,98 medidas não farmacológicas e 2,39 medidas farmacológicas. Nas primeiras 24 horas após a admissão, a média de procedimentos foi de 12,78, no primeiro dia, a média foi de 8,1, no segundo e terceiro dias, a média de procedimentos realizados foi de 5,36 e 3,84, respectivamente. O procedimento doloroso mais frequentemente realizado foi a glicemia capilar (20,96%). Registrou-se média de 1,98 medidas não farmacológicas nas primeiras 24 horas após admissão, 1,73 no primeiro dia, sendo média de 1,23 e 0,97 no segundo e terceiro dias, respectivamente. A estratégia não farmacológica mais comumente registrada foi a redução de luminosidade (28,33%). Com relação às medidas farmacológicas, foram adotadas, em média, 0,81 na admissão, 0,66 no primeiro dia, 0,544 no segundo dia e, 0,36 no terceiro dia, sendo o fentanil contínuo (48,83%) a principal medida farmacológica documentada. O escore NIPS e os sinais vitais apresentam variabilidade da admissão ao terceiro dia de internação. Finalmente, observou-se oscilação do nível das 11 citocinas e, destaca-se a presença de correlação positiva das IL-1b (r = 0,52; p<0,05), IL-2 (r = 0,4; p<0,05), IL-6 (r = 0,64; p<0,05) e VEGF (r = 0,44; p<0,05) com o número de procedimentos dolorosos. Conclusões: evidencia-se que da admissão ao terceiro dia de internação na UTIN, os RN foram expostos a número elevado de procedimentos potencialmente dolorosos, sendo insuficiente o manejo da dor. As alterações fisiológicas e comportamentais não refletem necessariamente o número de intervenções nas quais os RN foram submetidos. Destaca-se ainda, que a dosagem dos mediadores inflamatórios nas amostras de saliva pode fornecer fundamentação científica para a avaliação da dor, que juntamente com os parâmetros fisiológicos e comportamentais, amplia as perspectivas para o desenvolvimento de novas pesquisas para investigar a associação entre dor e as citocinas inflamatórias e compreender melhor as características das condições dolorosas.

Introduction: newborns (NB), who spend weeks or months in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU), undergo a high number of painful procedures. These procedures can trigger a global response, which includes physiological, endocrine and behavioral changes. Despite the large number of scales validated in recent decades, so far, there is no ideal method for the assessment of neonatal pain. Thus, other parameters have been explored, such as, for example, the dosages of inflammatory mediators. Objectives:to evaluate physiological, behavioral and endocrine patterns, related to painful procedures, in the first three days of life in newborns hospitalized in the NICU. Method: primary, observational and prospective clinical study, developed at the NICU of the University Hospital of the University of São Paulo. Demographic data of newborns were collected, as well as the number and type of painful procedures, pharmacological and non-pharmacological measures adopted. Vital signs and pain scores recorded in clinical records were also collected. Finally, three saliva samples were collected for three consecutive days (1-3) for the measurement of 11 cytokines (IFNg, IL1b, IL2, IL4, IL6, IL8, IL10, IL12, IL17, TNF e VEGF). Results: 90 newborns were included in the study, of which 53.33% were born by cesarean delivery; 62.22% were male; 87.78% classified as adequate for gestational age (AGA);48.88% are preterm and 48.88% term; average gestational age of 35 weeks;Mean Apgar score in the 5th min 7.51 (SD = 1.95); average birth weight 2.56 kg (SD = 1.0); the main diagnosis recorded was early respiratory distress (60%). The average length of stay in the NICU was 54.98 hours (SD = 30.61). The newborns underwent a total of 2,732 painful procedures, 540 non-pharmacological strategies and 216 pharmacological measures were used. From admission to the third day of hospitalization, an average of 30.36 painful procedures per NB were performed,with an average of 5.98 non-pharmacological measures and 2.39 pharmacological measures. In the first 24 hours, after admission, the average of procedures was 12.78, on the first day, the average was 8.1, on the second and third days, the average of the procedures performed was 5.36 and 3.84, respectively. The most frequently performed painful procedure was capillary glycemia (20.96%).An average of 1.98 non-pharmacological measures was recorded in the first 24 hours after admission, 1.73 on the first day, with an average of 1.23 and 0.97 on the second and third days, respectively.The most commonly registered non-pharmacological strategy was the reduction in brightness (28.33%). Regarding pharmacological measures, an average of 0.81 was taken at admission, 0.66 on the first day, 0.544 on the second day and 0.36 on the third day, with continuous fentanyl (48.83%) being the main pharmacological measure documented. The Neonatal Infant Pain Scale (NIPS) and vital signs show variability from admission to the third day of hospitalization. Finally, there was an oscillation in the level of the 11 cytokines and the presence of a positive correlation of IL-1b (r = 0.52; p <0.05), IL-2 (r = 0.4; p < 0.05), IL-6 (r = 0.64; p <0.05) and VEGF (r = 0.44; p <0.05), with the number of painful procedures. Conclusions: it is evident that from admission to the third day of hospitalization to the NICU,the NBs were exposed to a high number of potentially painful procedures, with insufficient pain management. Physiological and behavioral changes do not necessarily reflect the number of interventions to which newborns have undergone. It is also noteworthy that the dosage of inflammatory mediators in saliva samples can provide a scientific basis for pain assessment,which, together with the physiological and behavioral parameters, expands the perspectives for the development of new research to investigate the association between pain and inflammatory cytokines and to better understand the characteristics of painful condition

Dolor en la artrosis de rodilla / Pain in knee osteoarthritis

El dolor constituye el síntoma fundamental de la artrosis, sus características e interpretación permiten el diagnóstico certero y también conocer la magnitud de esa entidad. El objetivo de este trabajo, es profundizar los conocimientos sobre los elementos más esenciales relacionados con el dolor en la artrosis de la rodilla. Se describen las causas mecánicas y bioquímicas del dolor, entre las que resaltan el dolor óseo, sinovial, así como los factores bioquímicos relacionados con ese síntoma. Se hace referencia a las principales estructuras anatómicas responsables del dolor y sus mecanismos de acción. Se mencionan la relación existente entre ese síntoma y las modalidades imagenológicas, así como los patrones del dolor. Para finalizar, se hace referencia a las escalas de dolor usadas.

Pain is the main symptom of osteoarthritis. Determining the distinctive features of pain in knee osteoarthritis allows for an accurate diagnosis. This article gives a review of the results from research work on the typical features of knee osteoarthritic pain. The mechanics and biochemical causes of pain are described including both bone and synovial biochemical symptom-related factors. The relationships between knee pain, various imaging techniques and pain mechanism are also identified. Finally, the used pain scales are presented.

Peripheral nerve block and rebound pain: literature review / Bloqueio de nervos periféricos e dor rebote: revisão de literatura

Abstract Background and objectives: To investigate, describe, and assess the phenomenon of "rebound pain" as a clinically relevant problem in anesthetic practice. Content: The phenomenon of "rebound pain" has been demonstrated and described as a very severe pain, which occurs after a peripheral nerve block resolution with the recovery of sensitivity. The incidence of rebound pain is unknown. Usually, it occurs between 12 and 24 hours after surgery and, adversely affecting sleep quality. It is not yet possible to establish a mechanism as a definitive cause or trigger factor of rebound pain. Studies suggest that rebound pain is a side effect of peripheral nerve blocks, despite their effectiveness in pain control. Currently, the extent and clinical significance of rebound pain cannot be well determined due to the lack of large prospective studies. Conclusion: Rebound pain assessment should always be considered in clinical practice, as it is not a rare side effect of peripheral nerve blocks. There are still many challenging questions to be answered about rebound pain, so large prospective studies are needed to address the issue. For prevention, the use of peripheral nerve block techniques that avoid nerve damage and adequate perioperative analgesia associated with patient education on the early administration of analgesics, even during the period of analgesia provided by peripheral nerve block, is recommended. A better understanding of the "rebound pain" phenomenon, its pathophysiology, associated risk factors, and long-term consequences may help in developing more effective preventive strategies.

Resumo Justificativa e objetivos: Investigar, descrever e avaliar o fenômeno da "dor rebote" como um problema clinicamente relevante na prática anestésica. Conteúdo: O fenômeno da "dor rebote" foi demonstrado e descrito como uma dor muito intensa que ocorre após a resolução do bloqueio de nervo periférico com o retorno da sensibilidade. A incidência de dor rebote é desconhecida. Normalmente ela ocorre entre 12 a 24 horas após a cirurgia e afeta negativamente a qualidade do sono. Ainda não é possível estabelecer um mecanismo como causa definitiva ou fator desencadeante da dor rebote. Estudos sugerem que a dor rebote seja um efeito colateral dos bloqueios de nervos periféricos, apesar destes terem eficácia no controle álgico. Atualmente, a extensão e a significância clínica da dor rebote não podem ser bem determinadas, devido à falta de grandes estudos prospectivos. Conclusão: A avaliação da dor rebote deve ser sempre considerada na prática clínica, pois não é um efeito colateral raro dos bloqueios de nervo periféricos. Ainda existem muitas questões desafiadoras a serem respondidas sobre a dor rebote, portanto fazem-se necessários amplos estudos prospectivos sobre a temática. Para a sua prevenção recomenda-se o uso de técnicas de bloqueio de nervo periférico que evitem a lesão do nervo e uma adequada analgesia perioperatória associada à orientação do paciente sobre a administração precoce de analgésicos mesmo na vigência da analgesia proporcionada pelo bloqueio de nervo periférico. A melhor compreensão do fenômeno "dor rebote", sua fisiopatologia, seus fatores de risco associados e suas consequências em longo prazo poderá ajudar na elaboração de estratégias preventivas mais eficazes.

Expression of glycine receptor α3 subunit in neuropathic and inflammatory central pain sensitization

INTRODUCTION: Increasing evidence suggests that changes in the balance of excitatory/inhibitory neurotransmission are involved in the development of the majority of chronic pain forms. In this context, impairment in glycine mediated inhibitory neurotransmission is thought to play a critical role in the disinhibition that accounts for the development and maintenance of central pain hypersensitivity. AIMS: The goal of this study was to evaluate the Glycine Receptor α3 subunit (α3GlyR) expression in neuropathic (Chronic Constriction Injury, CCI) and inflammatory (Zymosan A injected) animal models of chronic pain. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: RT-qPCR analysis of spinal cord samples showed that glra3 gene expression does not change after 3 days of CCI and 4 hours of Zymosan A injection. However, we found that protein levels evaluated by Western blot increased after inflammatory pain. These data suggest that central sensitization is differentially regulated depending on the type of pain. α3GlyR protein expression plays an important role in the first step of inflammatory pain establishment.

Superior gluteal nerve: a new block on the block? / Nervo glúteo superior: um novo bloqueio a caminho?

Abstract Background and objectives The superior gluteal nerve is responsible for innervating the gluteus medius, gluteus minimus and tensor fascia latae muscles, all of which can be injured during surgical procedures. We describe an ultrasound-guided approach to block the superior gluteal nerve which allowed us to provide efficient analgesia and anesthesia for two orthopedic procedures, in a patient who had significant risk factors for neuraxial techniques and deep peripheral nerve blocks. Clinical report An 84-year-old female whose regular use of clopidogrel contraindicated neuraxial techniques or deep peripheral nerve blocks presented for urgent bipolar hemiarthroplasty in our hospital. Taking into consideration the surgical approach chosen by the orthopedic team, we set to use a combination of general anesthesia and superficial peripheral nerve blocks (femoral, lateral cutaneous of thigh and superior gluteal nerve) for the procedure. A month and a half post-discharge the patient was re-admitted for debriding and correction of suture dehiscence; we performed the same blocks and light sedation. She remained comfortable in both cases, and reported no pain in the post-operative period. Conclusions Deep understanding of anatomy and innervation empowers anesthesiologists to solve potentially complex cases with safer, albeit creative, approaches. The relevance of this block in this case arises from its innervation of the gluteus medius muscle and posterolateral portion of the hip joint. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of an ultrasound-guided superior gluteal nerve block with an analgesic and anesthetic goal, which was successfully achieved.

Resumo Justificativa e objetivos O nervo glúteo superior é responsável pela inervação dos músculos glúteo médio, glúteo mínimo e tensor da fáscia lata, todos podem ser lesados durante procedimentos cirúrgicos. Descrevemos uma abordagem guiada por ultrassom para bloqueio do nervo glúteo superior, o que nos permitiu fornecer analgesia e anestesia eficientes para dois procedimentos ortopédicos a uma paciente que apresentava fatores de risco significativos para técnicas neuraxiais e bloqueios profundos de nervos periféricos. Relato de caso Paciente do sexo feminino, 84 anos, cujo uso regular de clopidogrel contraindicava técnicas neuraxiais ou bloqueios profundos de nervos periféricos, apresentou-se para hemiartroplastia bipolar urgente em nosso hospital. Levando em consideração a abordagem cirúrgica escolhida pela equipe de ortopedia, estabelecemos o uso de uma combinação de anestesia geral e bloqueios superficiais de nervos periféricos (femoral, cutâneo lateral da coxa e nervo glúteo superior) para o procedimento. Um mês e meio após a alta, a paciente foi readmitida para desbridamento e correção da deiscência de sutura quando fizemos os mesmos bloqueios e sedação leve. A paciente permaneceu confortável em ambos os casos, sem queixa de dor no período pós-operatório. Conclusões A compreensão profunda da anatomia e da inervação capacita os anestesiologistas a resolver casos potencialmente complexos com abordagens mais seguras, até criativas. A relevância desse bloqueio neste caso resulta da sua inervação do músculo glúteo médio e da porção posterolateral da articulação do quadril. De acordo com nossa pesquisa, este é o primeiro relato de um bloqueio do nervo glúteo superior guiado por ultrassom com objetivo analgésico e anestésico que foi obtido com sucesso.

Problemas de sono em idosos estão associados a sexo feminino, dor e incontinência urinária / Sleep disturbances in older adults are associated to female sex, pain and urinary incontinence

RESUMO: Objetivos: A prevalência de problemas de sono em idosos, como insônia, é uma questão relevante em nossa sociedade. A má qualidade do sono, por exemplo, é vista por muitos como um resultado inevitável do envelhecimento. Neste contexto, este estudo teve como objetivo estimar a prevalência e os fatores associados a distúrbios do sono em homens e mulheres idosos (60 anos ou mais). Métodos: O presente trabalho é parte do estudo de coorte Saúde, Bem-Estar e Envelhecimento (SABE), realizado em São Paulo, Brasil. A amostra deste estudo transversal constituiu-se de 1.334 idosos com 60 anos ou mais. Os distúrbios foram avaliados com base nas respostas dos participantes, levando em conta se eles tinham experimentado qualquer perturbação do sono no mês anterior. Resultados: Dentre os avaliados, 44,9% indicaram distúrbios do sono em geral, sendo esses mais frequentes em mulheres (51,5%) e na faixa etária de 75 a 79 anos (48,2%). De acordo com a análise de regressão, gênero, doenças articulares, noctúria e incontinência urinária foram associados aos distúrbios, sobre os quais também foi verificado que seu aumento não é linearmente dependente da idade. Conclusões: Sexo, dor, incontinência urinária e noctúria são fatores associados a distúrbios do sono em idosos. Assim, concluímos que a sua ausência está associada ao gênero e ao estado de saúde.

ABSTRACT: Objectives: The prevalence of sleep problems in elderly, such as insomnia, is a relevant issue in our society. Poor sleep quality is viewed by many as an inevitable result of aging. In this context, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence and associated factors of sleeping disturbances in elderly men and women (60 years and older). Methods: The present study is part of SABE Study (Health, Well-being and Aging), a cohort conducted in São Paulo, Brazil. The sample included in the present cross-sectional study comprised 1,334 elderly people aged 60 years or older. Sleep disturbances were assessed based on responses of study participants on whether they had experienced any sleep disturbance in the past month. Results: Among the elderly assessed, 44.9% had overall sleep disturbances, which were more frequent in women (51.5%) and in 75 to 79 years old (48.2%). According to the regression analysis, the variables gender, joint diseases, as well as nocturia and urinary incontinence, were associated with sleep disorders. Increase in sleep disturbances was found not to be linearly age-dependent. Conclusions: Gender, pain, urinary and nocturia incontinence were factors associated with sleep disorders. Thus, we might conclude that the absence of sleep disturbances in older adults depends on gender and health status.

Vigencia del efecto placebo: su biología desde la genética a la conducta / Biological and genetic mechanisms underlying the placebo effect

The placebo effect has been seldom studied in the history of medicine. However, during the last decades, the great impact of this phenomenon in clinical practice, ranging from surgical to psychiatric field, has been revealed. Research elucidated both the psychological mechanisms and genetic polymorphisms that affect the susceptibility of individuals to express this phenomenon. We herein review the psychological mechanisms, brain structures (anterior cingulate cortex, nucleus accumbens, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, insular cortex, thalamus) and neurotransmission systems involved (opioid, dopaminergic, cannabinoid, serotoninergic, cholecystokinin). These are the clue to recognize the polymorphisms that have been identified so far. The biological basis of both the placebo effect and its alter ego, the nocebo effect, are well recognized, and related to corresponding psychological processes. Finally, the implications of the findings in clinical practice and medical training are discussed.

Symptoms of anxiety and depression are related to cardiovascular responses to active, but not passive, coping tasks

Objective: Anxiety and depression have been linked to blunted blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) reactions to mental stress tests; however, most studies have not included indices of underlying hemodynamics nor multiple stress tasks. This study sought to examine the relationships of anxiety and depression with hemodynamic responses to acute active and passive coping tasks. Methods: A total of 104 participants completed the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scales and mental arithmetic, speech, and cold pressor tasks while BP, HR, total peripheral resistance, and cardiac output (CO) were assessed. Results: After adjustment for traditional risk factors and baseline cardiovascular activity, depression scores were negatively associated with systolic BP, HR, and CO responses to the mental arithmetic task, while anxiety scores were inversely related to the systolic BP response to mental arithmetic. Conclusion: High anxiety or depression scores appear to be associated with blunted cardiac reactions to mental arithmetic (an active coping task), but not to the cold pressor test or speech tasks. Future research should further examine potential mechanisms and longitudinal pathways relating depression and anxiety to cardiovascular reactivity. Clinical trial registration number: TCTR20160208004

Fatores de risco para desenvolvimento de agitação em pacientes críticos / Risk factors for agitation in critically ill patients

RESUMO Objetivo: Avaliar a incidência de agitação nos primeiros 7 dias após admissão à unidade de terapia intensiva, seus fatores de risco e associação com desfechos clínicos. Métodos: Estudo de coorte unicêntrico prospectivo que incluiu maiores 18 anos, admitidos à unidade de terapia intensiva há menos de 24 horas e com previsão de permanência superior a 48 horas. Agitação psicomotora foi definida como pontuação igual ou superior a +2 na Escala de Agitação e Sedação de Richmond ou episódio de agitação, ou registro de uso de medicação específica na ficha clínica. Resultados: Ocorreu agitação em 31,8% dos 113 pacientes incluídos. Na análise multivariada, delirium (OR = 24,14; IC95% 5,15 - 113,14; p < 0,001), dor moderada ou intensa (OR = 5,74; IC95% 1,73 - 19,10; p = 0,004), ventilação mecânica (OR = 10,14; IC95% 2,93 - 35,10; p < 0,001) e tabagismo (OR = 4,49; IC95% 1,33 - 15,17; p = 0,015) foram independentemente associados a maior risco de desenvolver de agitação. Por outro lado, hiperlactatemia associou-se a um menor risco de ocorrência de agitação (OR = 0,169; IC95% 0,04 - 0,77; p = 0,021). Pacientes agitados tiveram menor tempo livre de ventilação mecânica em 7 dias (p = 0,003). Conclusão: A incidência de agitação nos 7 primeiros dias de internação em unidade de terapia intensiva foi elevada. Delirium, dor moderada ou intensa, ventilação mecânica e tabagismo foram fatores de risco independentes para o desenvolvimento de agitação. Pacientes agitados tiveram menor tempo livre de ventilação mecânica nos 7 primeiros dias.

ABSTRACT Objective: To evaluate the incidence of agitation in the first 7 days after intensive care unit admission, its risk factors and its associations with clinical outcomes. Methods: This single-center prospective cohort study included all patients older than 18 years with a predicted stay > 48 hours within the first 24 hours of intensive care unit admission. Agitation was defined as a Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale score ≥ +2, an episode of agitation or the use of a specific medication recorded in patient charts. Results: Agitation occurred in 31.8% of the 113 patients. Multivariate analysis showed that delirium [OR = 24.14; CI95% 5.15 - 113.14; p < 0.001], moderate or severe pain [OR = 5.74; CI95% 1.73 - 19.10; p = 0.004], mechanical ventilation [OR = 10.14; CI95% 2.93 - 35.10; p < 0.001], and smoking habits [OR = 4.49; CI95% 1.33 - 15.17; p = 0.015] were independent factors for agitation, while hyperlactatemia was associated with a lower risk [OR = 0.169; CI95% 0.04 - 0.77; p = 0.021]. Agitated patients had fewer mechanical ventilation-free days at day 7 (p = 0.003). Conclusion: The incidence of agitation in the first 7 days after admission to the intensive care unit was high. Delirium, moderate/severe pain, mechanical ventilation, and smoking habits were independent risk factors. Agitated patients had fewer ventilator-free days in the first 7 days.

Protocolos de encaminhamento da atenção básica para a atenção especializada: urologia / Primary care referral protocols for specialized care: urology

Este material tem como objetivo orientar as equipes que atuam na AB, qualificando o processo de referenciamento de usuários para outros serviços especializados. É uma ferramenta, ao mesmo tempo, de gestão e de cuidado, pois tanto guiam as decisões dos profissionais solicitantes quanto se constitui como referência que modula as avaliações apresentadas pelos médicos reguladores.

Factores asociados a un sangrado mayor en reemplazo total de cadera / Associated factors due to major bleeding in total hip replacement

La artroplastía total de cadera es un procedimiento frecuente cuya duración habitual es mayor a 90 minutos y se asocia con una pérdida considerable de sangre. Se realiza generalmente en pacientes > 60 años que presentan comorbilidades. El conocer los factores asociados con el sangrado mayor en los pacientes sometidos a este procedimiento permitirá identificar a aquellos pacientes que se encuentran en riesgo. Material y métodos: Se realizó un estudio retrospectivo, de acuerdo con un modelo de casos y controles seleccionando a los pacientes por su desenlace primario: sangrado mayor/no sangrado mayor. Se incluyeron 142 pacientes tratados con una artroplastía total de cadera, divididos en 47 casos y 95 controles. Resultados: Las variables que presentaron mayor asociación a influir en la presencia de sangrado mayor fue la hemoglobina y hematocrito prequirúrgicos, el IMC, el tiempo quirúrgico así como el uso de transfusión sanguínea aumentaba el tiempo de estancia intrahospitalaria. El valor prequirúrgico de hemoglobina demostró que el tipo de paciente más asociado con sangrado mayor contaba con una hemoglobina > 13 g/dl. Observamos que los 102 pacientes (71.8%) a los que se les realizó una transfusión sanguínea, tuvieron una mayor estancia intrahospitalaria (p 0.007). Conclusión: La presencia de un sangrado mayor es un evento frecuente. Conociendo los factores asociados a sangrado mayor, el equipo quirúrgico se puede anticipar a este evento y en lo posible modificarlo.

Total hip arthroplasty is a common procedure whose typical duration is greater than 90 minutes and is associated with substantial blood loss. It is usually performed in patients > 60 years who have comorbidities. Knowing the factors associated with major bleeding in patients undergoing this procedure will allow us to identify patients who are at risk. Material and methods: We performed a retrospective study, according to a case-control model selecting patients for the primary outcome: major bleeding/not major bleeding. We included 142 patients treated with total hip arthroplasty, divided into 47 cases and 95 matched controls. Results: The variables that showed a higher association to influence the presence of major bleeding was preoperative hemoglobin and hematocrit, BMI, operating time, as well as the use of blood transfusion increased the time of hospital stay. The preoperative hemoglobin value showed that the type of patient more associated with major bleeding had a hemoglobin > 13 g/dl. We observed that 102 patients (71.8%) who underwent a blood transfusion had an increased length of stay (p 0.007). Conclusion: The presence of major bleeding is a frequent event. When knowing the factors associated with major bleeding, the surgical team can anticipate this event and modify it as possible.

Physical exercise prevents motor disorders and striatal oxidative imbalance after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion

Stroke is the third most common cause of death worldwide, and most stroke survivors present some functional impairment. We assessed the striatal oxidative balance and motor alterations resulting from stroke in a rat model to investigate the neuroprotective role of physical exercise. Forty male Wistar rats were assigned to 4 groups: a) control, b) ischemia, c) physical exercise, and d) physical exercise and ischemia. Physical exercise was conducted using a treadmill for 8 weeks. Ischemia-reperfusion surgery involved transient bilateral occlusion of the common carotid arteries for 30 min. Neuromotor performance (open-field and rotarod performance tests) and pain sensitivity were evaluated beginning at 24 h after the surgery. Rats were euthanized and the corpora striata was removed for assay of reactive oxygen species, lipoperoxidation activity, and antioxidant markers. Ischemia-reperfusion caused changes in motor activity. The ischemia-induced alterations observed in the open-field test were fully reversed, and those observed in the rotarod test were partially reversed, by physical exercise. Pain sensitivity was similar among all groups. Levels of reactive oxygen species and lipoperoxidation increased after ischemia; physical exercise decreased reactive oxygen species levels. None of the treatments altered the levels of antioxidant markers. In summary, ischemia-reperfusion resulted in motor impairment and altered striatal oxidative balance in this animal model, but those changes were moderated by physical exercise.

Dolor en artritis reumatoide / Pain in rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a systemic inflammatory disease of unknown cause that primarily affects the joints. The joint pain is most often the reason for consultation and main complaint in successive evaluations. The mechanisms of pain in these patients are not entirely clear as inactive stages of the disease, the pain is still a frequent complaint and appears at distant sites to the inflamed joint; it is postulated that there are phenomena of peripheral and central sensitization chronic pain involved would generate; this would require a change in the confrontation of the patient needing a multimodal and comprehensive approach with aggressive pharmacological alternatives that include infiltrations when required and no pharmacological actions such as physiotherapy, occupational therapy and exercise. This is how the early physiatrist assessment appears as an alternative. Then part of the mechanisms involved are reviewed, plus data showing clinical experience when evaluating a cohort of patients diagnosed with RA...

Test cuantitativo sensorial en dolor / Quantitative sensory test in pain

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience, which is present in many diseases, and the central symptom of many of them. However, their diagnosis and evaluation methods have not changed much in the last century. Tools to quantitatively analyze this symptom and its underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are needed. The quantitative sensory test (QST) is a test done several decades ago for research purposes. However, in recent years, its use in different pain conditions have placed it as a tool to consider in evaluating a patient. The aim of this review is to provide information on the current performance of this test and its clinical applications development...